difference between russian and european

Kappeler, Andreas: Rußland als Vielvölkerreich: Entstehung, Geschichte, Zerfall, Munich 1992. Peter broke with Muscovite Orthodox traditions in ceremonial court culture and re-orientated the latter instead towards baroque forms and the classical Greek and Roman system of symbols.37 Peter ordered his aristocracy to dress in accordance with European fashions and to shave off their Orthodox beards. Bringing together leading scholars from Russia and outside experts on Russia, this book looks at the difference between the image Russia has of itself and the way it is viewed in the West. Social and economic history viewed the history of Russia through the prism of its supposed backwardness in comparison with Europe and the west. URL: https://doi.org/10.14361/transcript.9783839421369 [2021-06-07], Hildermeiner, Manfred: Das Privileg der Rückständigkeit: Anmerkungen zum Wandel einer Interpretationsfigur der neueren russischen Geschichte, in: Historische Zeitschrift 244 (1987), pp. C. Russian nobles embraced the Enlightenment long before their . The USSR lasted from 1917 to about 1991 while Russia continued from that point in time. URL: https://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00043026/image_119 [2021-06-07], Lemberg, Hans: Zur Entstehung des Osteuropabegriffs im 19. It has since been described as a . URL: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400849697 [2021-06-07], Zajewski, Władysław: Powstanie listopadowie 1830–1831, in: Stefan Kieniewicz (Hg. Peter's victory over the Ottoman Empire in 1696, through which he gained the Black Sea fortress of Azov, provided the motive for this journey. Uvarov was attempting to make a concession to the nationalist terminology of the early 19th century without deviating one iota from the unrestricted power of the autocracy.66 The triad of "autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality" can also be viewed as a Russian response to the French slogan "liberté, égalité, fraternité". ): Imperium inter pares: Rol transferov v istorii Rossijskoj Imperii (1700–1917), Moscow 2010, pp. For Humanity's Sake is the first study in English to trace the genealogy of the classic Russian novel, from Pushkin to Tolstoy to Dostoevsky. Similarly when we say “20th Century,” we are referring to the 1900s. Hard to define what's understood under each culture. Today's supermarket yogurt aisles, even in middle America, resembles the United Nations. It's confusing as hell. Abstract: In this article, I carry out a comparative analysis of population change in the bordering regions of Russia and the European Union. Answer Expert Verified. The differences between English and Russian. Her research focuses on the relationship between Russians and . Novikov and Radishchev were both severely dealt with by the government as a result. How was the United States at the beginning of the 20th century? However, the 17th century did not conform to this Orthodox masterplan. In 1789/1790, Nikolai M. Karamzin (1766–1826) stayed in Paris as part of a tour of Europe which also saw him travelling through Germany, Switzerland and other countries. The real differences between Russia and the West lie in the fact that survival, social cohesion, economic equality and physical security take precedence over the values of individual self-expression, sexual liberation and tolerance of foreigners that have become normative in the West (particularly Western and Northern Europe). A. Russian peasants were more educated than those in the West. Kappeler, Andreas: Kleine Geschichte der Ukraine, Munich 1994. He questioned the causal relationship between the characteristics of the government and the people in Muscovite Russia: "Ich weiß nit eigentlich, ob dises unbarmherzig volk eines sollichen tyrannen zu einem fürsten bedarfe, oder ob durch deß fürsten tyranney das volk also unmilt und grausamlichen wird."26. I sat down with KHL Medvescak Zagreb Coach Mark French and captain Alan Letang to discuss the differences between playing and coaching in North America and Europe. The nation as a demos was rendered in Russian with the word natsiia from this time onward. He supported the publication of periodicals, engaged in philanthropic activity, set up schools and supported kitchens for orphans and the poor.56 In 1790, Aleksandr N. Radishchev (1749–1802) published his description of a Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow.57 In it, he condemned the intolerable living conditions of Russian peasants under serfdom. This book is the first full-spectrum analysis of Russian and European norms of political action, ranging from international law, ethics, and strategy, to the specific norms for the use of force. She is a double major in Foreign Affairs and Russian and Eastern European Studies. ): Asiatic Russia: Imperial Power in Regional and International Contexts, London 2012, pp. The central focus is placed on perceptions and interactions in the areas of politics, economics, religion and culture. In 1517, he was entrusted with the task of brokering a truce between Moscow and Poland-Lithuania. This book which investigates the difference between Russian and European literature was first published in 1905 and is reprinted from the authorised English translation of 1920 with a foreword by D H Lawrence who was a great admirer of ... The only real problem West is facing is low birthrate, but Russia has same problem too. Smith, Abby Finnogh: Prince V. V. Golitsyn: The Life of an Aristocratic in Muscovite Russia, Cambridge, MA 1987. Discuss with students Russia's place as a geographical and cultural crossroad between the two continents. Torke, Hans-Joachim: From Muscovy towards St Petersburg 1598–1689, in: Gregory L. Freeze (ed. This book argues that Russia has been influential in these debates on norms and law as a permanent United Nations Security Council member and as a major military power. Contact with Muscovites and other foreigners was regulated and was often prohibited. What were the changes incurred in the 20th century? Russian and American Lives The world around us has yet to realize the comparable lives between Russia's and America's life styles. In this confrontation, Russia was able to rely on its past experience of the competition between empires. It also noted that he was the great-grandfather of Russia's greatest poet, Alexander . Answer (1 of 5): Are there really many differences? Peter viewed the Protestant seafaring countries of Sweden, the Netherlands and England as particularly good models for Russia. South Russian virgin hair will last for around 2 years but it isn't available in many colours. There was a lack of clarity regarding which hymns and prayers should be performed in which order. But where one may be lacking in one area, it makes up for in others. This book examines the relationship between national identity construction and current foreign policy discourses on Russia in selected European Union member states in 2014–2018. European piped natural gas supply from Russia has slowed in recent weeks, raising questions about the potential causes behind the drop and its implications for global gas markets. Nolte, Hans-Heinrich: Geschichte Russlands, 3rd edition, Stuttgart 2012. “Most Russians of all classes were Orthodox Christians, not Catholics or Protestants.”. What were three differences between Russia and Western Europe? ): Russische Begriffsgeschichte der Neuzeit, Cologne 2006, pp. Herberstein published the resulting work in 1549 under the title Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii. Schulze Wessel, Martin: Systembegriff und Europapolitik der russischen Diplomatie im 18. 1. (eds. 9–26. Considering how russia and ussr treated a lot of nations, there should be a lot more talks about racism and nazism.. - No identity politics- Very different governments, rights, rule of law, etc.- All talk is "real talk" (no fake "how are you doing? I might go a bit over the top, but " Western culture" is a tool of alienation, nothing more. Found inside – Page 14If a meaningful political process is to develop in the republic, human rights violations must stop and those guilty of abuses must be ... Europe Commissioner for Human Rights are implemented immediately by the Russian Federation. 10. During his Russian campaign of 1812, the Orthodox church viewed him as a demon and a Satan. As early as the 1620s, contemporaries were talking about a split (raskol) in the church.28 Furthermore, in Orthodox religious services there was a lack of consistency between the liturgical books. China, humiliated in the Opium Wars of the mid-19th century, was never colonized but lost substantial economic and political sovereignty as European nations, the U.S., and Japan established treaty ports and spheres of influence in the country, factors which fueled the first revolution in Asia in the 20th century, the …, Premature death disrupted many families. Schelting, Alexander von: Rußland und der Westen im russischen Geschichtsdenken der zweiten Hälfte des 19. URL: https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.08632 / URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7829/j.ctt2jbp6p.4 [2021-06-07]. The Russian, Chinese, Mughal, and Ottoman empires added to this phenomenon. ), In my opinion, it's OK to live here if you were born here (because I've never lived in other countries). She corresponded regularly with Voltaire (1694–1778)[], and she helped Denis Diderot (1713–1784) out of his financial difficulties by buying his library from him but allowing him to retain it on loan until the end of his life.49, After Russia annexed the Crimea in 1783 and dissolved the Islamic Crimean Khanate, the last remaining successor state of the Golden Horde of the Mongols, Catherine II undertook a journey to the peninsula, which was now called Taurida, in the company of Emperor Joseph II (1741–1790, Holy Roman Emperor 1765–1790) and the French ambassador to Saint Petersburg, Comte Louis-Philippe de Ségur (1753–1830). Thus, the history of Imperial Russia could be written as a history of state reforms, which almost invariably did not yield the desired results and most certainly did not close the developmental gap between European societies and Russia.9 "Gesellschaft als staatliche Veranstaltung" (society as a state event) and "geborgter Imperialismus" (borrowed imperialism) were phrases which neatly encapsulated these views.10 World-system historical approaches attempted to explain the supposed backwardness of Russia not endogenously, but in terms of interdependence in a global economic division of labour between peripheries, semi-peripheries and core societies in the modern period. The study is devoted to collect, compare and assess different methodologies between Russian and European codes for manufacturing, design and materials of safety related components of fast breeder reactors, cooled with liquid metals. I haven't been to western Europe, so this is what I know: 1) The whole "social justice" thing, like LGBT rights, has not yet taken hold in Russia. On the journey, Peter came to the view that the passive use of European technology and the hiring of foreign experts would not advance Russia's cause in the long term. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2124848 / URL: https://doi.org/10.1086/244672 [2021-06-07]. To familiarize the population with the laws, the empress focused on education policy. Of course, the successors of Peter the Great faced the question of how to accept this legacy and how to continue it. URL: https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015028172750 [2021-06-07], Geyer, Dietrich: Der russische Imperialismus: Studien über den Zusammenhang von innerer und auswärtiger Politik 1860–1914, Göttingen 1977. URL: http://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb00043032-6 [2021-06-07], Kingston-Mann, Esther: In Search of the True West: Culture, Economics, and Problems of Russian Development, Princeton, NJ 1999. The main differences are that an American Doberman Pinscher is a sleek, elegant, show dog that possesses an ideal temperament for use as a family pet, while the European Doberman is a slightly larger, more muscular dog with a high drive and a temperament better suited for use as a working dog. While Alexander Herzen (1812–1870) bemoaned the failure of the liberal revolution in exile in Switzerland, Fedor I. Tiutchev (1803–1873) viewed the revolutionary violence and upheaval as confirmation of the Slavophile philosophy of history and its implied plea for the retention of the unique character of Russia and Orthodox values.68 Of course, a section of the peasantry in Russia had perceived it differently. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41047412 [2021-06-07]. Research into cognitive maps has brought a new awareness of the cultural construction of concepts of space into historiography. 10, online: rvb.ru/pushkin/01text/10letters/1831_37/01text/1836/1928_740.htm [22nd August 2013]. Gustave Doré's (1832–1883) History of Holy Russia – a "history" of Russia in the form of a comic – brought all of the negative ideas about Russia in Europe together in one volume: despotically autocratic, arbitrary policy state, limitless violence and oppressive lack of freedom.72, In spite of the continued existence of negative stereotypes, a significant change in Russia's relationship with Europe and the world from the 1850s onward should not be overlooked. The Great Embassy took Peter to a number of capital cities, coronation cities and royal residence cities: Königsberg, Berlin, Amsterdam, London, Dresden and Vienna. (eds. URL: https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.32476 [2021-06-07]. URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41050113 [2021-06-07]. It’s difficult to imagine our world today without computers. On many levels, the Russian Empire participated in the globalization of the 19th and early 20th century. Seminar paper from the year 2003 in the subject Business economics - Business Management, Corporate Governance, grade: Distinction, Bond University Australia, language: English, abstract: Abstract "Communism was based on everyone being the ... $\endgroup$ - At the turn of the 20th century, the United States became a world power. Mechnikov then developed a social maxim of anarchism, which was based on the principle of mutual assistance. These disciplines, but also popular publishing, now located Russia in the east of Europe.1 This created the cognitive map on which the university discipline of "eastern European history" – which emerged in the late 19th century initially in Berlin and Vienna – located Russia.2 However, opinion regarding the positioning of Russia with regard to the present and history of Europe was not only important in Europe. Kahan, Arcadius: The Plow, the Hammer, and the Knout: An Economic History of Eighteenth-Century Russia, Chicago 1985. The Grand Principality of Finland and the Kingdom of Poland each had their own constitutions within the Russian Empire. In Africa, the Russian Empire was primarily viewed as an empire which, unlike the other European empires, did not participate in the so-called "scramble for Africa". ", no fake smiles, etc. Doré, Gustave: Die äußerst anschauliche, fesselnde und seltsame Historie vom Heiligen Russland, Gütersloh 1970. Introduction: Russian is part of the Slavonic branch of the Indo-European language family. Perception patterns and conceptions of identity that were formed over the course of years thus have a lasting effect on EU-Russia relations. This collection disentangles these perception structures. Nuclear power was to the twentieth century what steam power had been to the nineteenth: a game changer. More about Russia Area The European part of Russia covers an area of 3,960,000 km², making it somewhat larger than India, or about half the size of the Contiguous United States. The 20th century saw a massive transformation of the world order: global total fertility rates, sea level rise and ecological collapses increased; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation, water depletion, and the mass extinction of many of the world’s species and decline in …. Eastern Europe is considered to be less economically developed than Western Europe. 12. The Soviet Union is a former federation of Communist republics comprised of 15 republics.. Official Name. Of course, women are different throughout the world. St. Petersburg responded by using military force to suppress the rebellion. The relations of individual member states of the European Union and Russia vary, though a 1990s common foreign policy outline towards Russia was the first such EU foreign policy agreed. Schaeder, Hildegard: Autokratie und Heilige Allianz, Darmstadt 1963. Chaadaev's Letter also contributed to a split in a reading circle of scholars and students around Nikolai V. Stankevich (1813–1840) in Moscow. Both of these countries are multi-ethnic, great powers, whom have a variety of diverse groups in their societies. (eds. Figes, Orlando: Natasha's Dance: A Cultural History of Russia, New York 2002. Often, these fancy-sounding yogurts are priced at a premium well above the store-brand American stuff. Patriarch Filaret (1553–1633, patriarch 1619–1633), who entered the office in 1619 and who had spent part of the Time of Troubles in Polish captivity, made every effort to protect his church against the supposedly deleterious influence of other religions, particularly Catholicism. 51–282. The second part reviews the current challenges facing NATO Allies and Russia in three main areas: the reduction of nonstrategic nuclear weapons in Europe, stalemate regarding conventional forces in Europe, and limits of cooperation in ... URL: https://archive.org/details/invanguardofrefo00linc [2021-06-07], Malia, Martin: Russia under Western Eyes: From the Bronze Horseman to the Lenin Mausoleum, Cambridge, MA 1999. During the planning of a railway network for Russia, the example of the USA was regularly referenced, as it provided an example of how this means of transport could open up a very large territory.79 Likewise, the observations that Lev Mechnikov (1838–1888) had made during his travels in Japan between 1874 and 1876 provided an important impetus for the development of anarchism in Russia. They both have some kind mountain range and . what's the difference between them? We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. The Personal Computer. However, quite apart from the affairs of state which were pursued, Peter gained a decisive insight into the mechanisms of cultural transfer which was to prove very important. 118–149. Dezember 2007 bis 2. European cultures and management styles 25. Judging by some material from the Internet, this is not the best place to live. Some wealthy aristocrats – such as Vasilii V. Golitsyn (1644–1714), the most influential advisor to the regent Sofia Alekseevna (1657–1704, regent 1682–1689) in the 1680s – also displayed a great openness towards Europe in the arrangement of their country residences, for example by accumulating libraries of western books.30 The role played by Ukrainian elites as intermediaries between Europe and Russia spans the end of the Muscovite period in the second half of the 17th century and the first two thirds of the 18th century. About 85 per cent of Russian empires population earned their living from Agriculture. At the start of her instruction in 1767 to the Legislative Commission, which was charged with the task of drafting a new code of laws, she stated that "Russia is a European power".46 The instruction borrowed unapologetically from such Enlightenment thinkers as Montesquieu (1698–1755) and Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794). The relationship between Russia and the EU hit a new low last week when the EU's foreign policy chief, Josep Borrell, visited his counterpart in Moscow. About 85 per cent of the Russian empire's population earned their living from agriculture. East or West: An Ongoing Discussion. The living conditions in the cities and towns were miserable and characterized by: overcrowding, poor sanitation, spread of diseases, and pollution. While in the medieval period European trade with Russia had been under the control of the Hanseatic League, in the 16th and 17th centuries the English and the Dutch in particular succeeded in replacing the League in this regard. Encounters between Protestants and Catholics of the confessional period and members of the Orthodox Church tended to highlight religious differences.21, However, in spite of the marked cultural differences, the behaviour of Muscovite tsars towards foreigners from Europe was very pragmatic. Catherine II maintained this, but she pursued a pragmatic religious policy, which incorporated the confessions into the administration of the empire.44 She assigned new tasks to the civilizing mission. It's a civilization with it's own roots. The term can be found in the language of educated Russians during this period. Schippan, Michael: Die Einrichtung der Kollegien in Russland zur Zeit Peters I., Wiesbaden 1996. The punishments meted out in this case were in stark contrast to the enthusiastic attitude to the Enlightenment in the early part of Catherine's reign. He intervened militarily to assist the Habsburgs and suppressed the revolution in Hungary. Sdvižkov, Denis A.: Imperiia v napoleonskom nariade: vospriiatie frantsuzskogo neoklassitsizma v Rossiiskoi Imperii, in: Martin Aust et al. European and Russian women who visit America often report that one of their first impressions is that the women there have no real interests (compared to them at least; by their standards). URL: https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015064691374 [2021-06-07]. URL: https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015029143727 [2021-06-07]. The imperative of provincializing the category of Europe, including the removal of its normative position with regard to other regions of the world, has also affected depictions of the long-running topic of "Russia and Europe".19 The history of the relationship between Russia and Europe can no longer be enclosed within the borders of Russia and Europe, which are in any case not unambiguous. Mogil'ner, Marina: Homo Imperii: A History of Physical Anthropology in Russia, Lincoln, NE 2013. Which statement accurately describes a difference between Russia and western Europe during the 1600s? Redaktion:Copy Editor: Joe Kroll. : Nakaz eia imperatorskago velichestva Ekateriny Vtoryia samoderzhitsy vserossiiskiaa dannii kommissii s sochinenii proekta novago ulozheniia [English: Her Imperial Majesty's Instruction to the Commission for the Drafting of the New Legal Code], St. Petersburg 1770. URL: https://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924002501264 [2021-06-07], Gerschenkron, Alexander: Europe in the Russian Mirror: Four Lectures in Economic History, Cambridge 1970. For example, in the 17th century the European demand for leather resulted in an increase in cattle farming and leather production particularly along the upper and middle Volga.24, Anyone who travelled to Moscow from a European country in the 16th and 17th centuries, did not do so for the love of travelling, but either to perform a specific task in the areas of politics, economics and the church or in search of riches, which were frequently lost as quickly as they were gained. Benz, Ernst: Leibniz und Peter der Grosse: Der Beitrag Leibnizens zur russischen Kultur-, Religions- und Wirtschaftspolitik seiner Zeit, Berlin 1947. ): "Poniatiia o Rossii": k istoricheskoi semantike imperskogo perioda, Moscow 2012, vol. ): Genezis lichnosti, demokraticheskoi semi, grazhdanskogo obshchestva i pravovogo gosudarstva, St. Petersburg 1999, vol. URL: https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015040565114 [2021-06-07]. Europe The picture below is an exquisitely elegant bridge called Rakotzbrücke, in Kromlau, Gablenz, built in the 19th century in German. This book brings together thirteen scholars to introduce the newest and most cutting-edge research in the field of Russian and East European art history. In Russia, the internal debate about how Russia relates to Europe became a permanent topic in public and learned discourse. Like some European nations like to complain, other don’t. At the turn of the 20th century, millions of immigrants poured into the United States. For a prime example of a discourse of difference existing in parallel with structurally similar practices of rule, we need only look at Russian Turkestan and British India in the late 19th and early 20th century. Troebst, Stefan: Handelskontrolle – "Derivation" – Eindämmung: Schwedische Moskaupolitik 1617–1661, Wiesbaden 1997. The institution of serfdom, under which the Russian peasants lived, was at its strongest during the reign of Catherine II.47 While her education policy was ambitious, she did not succeed in introducing a universal system of education with a school in every village.48 However, through close contact with famous representatives of the French Enlightenment, Catherine II nonetheless managed to maintain the impression of an enlightened monarch. (Image credit: Creative Commons | The Opte Project). Miller, Aleksei I.: Priobretenie neobkhodimoe, no ne vpolne udobnoe: Transfer poniatiia natsiia v Rossiiu (nachalo XVIII–seredina XIX v.), in: Martin Aust et al. In exchange, Russia imported weapons and luxury goods. Schulze Wessel, Martin: Städtische und ländliche Öffentlichkeiten in Russland 1848, in: Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 48 (2000), pp. Novikov was imprisoned from 1792 to 1796 in the Shlisselburg fortress. The fact that these differences exist has taken root in political ideology and social stereotypes in the EU and Russia as well. URL: https://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb11064864-7 [2021-06-07]. This went beyond Mikhail A. Bakunin's (1814–1876) call to destroy the existing order and was ultimately taken up by Petr A. Kropotkin (1842–1921).80 Related to the traditional histories of cultural transfer is the history of professionalization in Russia from the mid-19th century. URL: https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015064138467 [2021-06-07]. Aust, Martin: Russia and Europe (1547–1917), in: In the 15th century, it was primarily Italians in the service of the pope who travelled to Moscow to ascertain whether it might still be possible to implement the Catholic-Orthodox union of Ferrara-Florence of 1438/1439 – having completely misread the intentions of the Russians in this regard. Mission, colonialism, and changing values. URL: https://hdl.handle.net/2027/inu.32000009451024 [2021-06-07], Scheidegger, Gabriele: Perverses Abendland – barbarisches Russland: Begegnungen des 16. und 17. In addition, some electrical devices cannot handle the lower 50 hertz cycle found in much of the . The difference between Russian women and Western women Posted on January 27, 2017 by online dating reviewer And by Russian, I mean of course girls from the ex- USSR : not only Russia, but also Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, and even Hungary or Poland. In the area of foreign policy, it became apparent to Peter's successors that the status of a European great power could not be based solely on prestigious military victories, such as the victory at Poltava in 1709. For about the last two decades, historiography has been dominated by a world and global history which seeks to counteract Eurocentrism. The unification of Moscow and the Ukrainian Cossacks, who were also Orthodox, through the Treaty of Pereiaslav in 1654 made abundantly clear once more that the Orthodox church had adopted different forms among the East Slavs. His work also illustrates how the European Grand Tour had become a normal part of the socialization of a Russian nobleman in the late 18th century. If you are in the vom, European History Online (EGO), 473–511. Another difference is that Russia was part of the Iron Pact, while most of Western Europe was part of N.A.T.O . Aust, Martin: Globalisierung imperial und sozialistisch: Russland und die Sowjetunion in der Globalgeschichte 1851–1991, Frankfurt am Main 2013. Karamzin, Nikolai M.: Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, Moscow 2005, vol. Neumann, Daniela: Studentinnen aus dem Russischen Reich in der Schweiz: 1867–1914, Zürich 1987. 20–53. Russian women vs Ukrainian women vs American women. Smith, Douglas: Smith, Freemasonry and the Public in Eighteenth-Century Russia, in: Jane Burbank et al. In this new book, analysts from both the EU and Russia speculate on whether these two very different animals can find a way to improve their strained relationship. URL: https://rvb.ru/pushkin/toc.htm [2021-06-07]. Russia and Europe (1547-1917) Over the last five centuries, Russia and Europe have been closely interconnected politically, economically and culturally. The voltage in Europe is twice that of the voltage in the United States, and while many electronics are designed to adapt to voltage changes, it is crucial to check. The emphasis was now placed on European modes of living, agriculture and sedentary society, as well as the cohesion of the empire.45, However, it cannot be overlooked that Catherine II viewed the Russian Empire as being in a continuum of Europeanization. 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